The Origin of the Genus Flavivirus and the Ecology of Tick-Borne Pathogens

Abstract: The present thesis examines questions related to the temporal origin of the Flavivirus genus and the ecology of tick-borne pathogens. In the first study, we date the origin and divergence time of the Flavivirus genus. It has been argued that the first flaviviruses originated after the last glacial maximum. This has been contradicted by recent analyses estimating that the tick-borne flaviviruses emerged at least before 16,000 years ago. It has also been argued that the Powassan virus was introduced into North America at the time between the opening and splitting of the Beringian land bridge. Supported by tip date and biogeographical calibration, our results suggest that this genus originated circa 120,000 (156,100–322,700) years ago if the Tamana bat virus is included in the genus, or circa 85,000 (63,700–109,600) years ago excluding the Tamana bat virus. In the second study we estimate the prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in host-seeking Ixodes ricinus from 29 localities in Sweden and compare our data with those of neighbouring countries. Nymphs and adult ticks were screened for TBEV using a real-time PCR assay. The mean TBEV prevalence for all tick stages combined was 0.26% for Sweden and 0.28% for all Scandinavian countries, excluding Iceland. The low prevalence of TBEV in nature may partly be explained by the fact that TBEV occurs in spatially small foci and that the inclusion of ticks from non-infected foci will reduce the prevalence estimate. In the third and fourth study, we conducted the first large-scale investigations to estimate the prevalence and geographical distribution of Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. in host-seeking larvae, nymphs and adults of I. ricinus ticks in Sweden. Ticks were collected from several localities in central and southern Sweden and were subsequently screened for the presence of Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. using a real-time PCR assay. For all active tick stages combined, the mean prevalence of Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. in I. ricinus in Sweden was estimated to 1.1% and 4.8%, respectively. It was also shown that A. phagocytophilum and R. helvetica are the main Anaplasma and Rickettsia species occurring in Sweden.